Multi-response optimization of flowability and compressive strength in alkali-activated slag mortar using Taguchi–PCR-TOPSIS approach.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21041/ra.v16i3.1035Keywords:
alkali-activated slag, multi-response optimization, PCR–TOPSIS, Taguchi method, compressive strength, flowabilityAbstract
This study aimed to identify an Alkali-Activated Slag (AAS) mortar mixture balancing flowability and compressive strength as a sustainable alternative to Portland cement. Twenty-seven mixtures varying activator dosage, modulus, water-to-binder ratio, aggregate-to-binder ratio, and superplasticizer content were evaluated using a Taguchi L27 design, ANOVA, and PCR-TOPSIS optimization. Activator dosage was most influential (70.90% contribution), followed by aggregate-to-binder ratio (10.12%), while modulus and water-to-binder ratio played minor roles. The optimal mixture (flow 115%, strength 48.85 MPa) was validated by an independent replicate batch, with an estimated 79% lower CO2 footprint than a Portland-cement control. Reaction mechanisms were not confirmed microstructurally. Unlike prior single-response approaches, this study combines statistical validation, experimental confirmation, and environmental estimation for a more rigorous mortar design basis.
Downloads
References
Abudawaba, F., Gomaa, E., Gheni, A., ElGawady, M. (2021). Developing Mix Proportions for Class C Fly Ash-Based Alkali-Activated 3D-Printed Concrete Mixtures. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2676, 036119812110391. https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211039167 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211039167
Ahmad, J., Kontoleon, K. J., Majdi, A., Naqash, M. T., Deifalla, A. F., Ben Kahla, N., Isleem, H. F., Qaidi, S. M. A. (2022). A Comprehensive Review on the Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) in Concrete Production. Sustainability, 14(14), 8783. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148783 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148783
Amer, I., Kohail, M., El-Feky, M. S., Rashad, A., Khalaf, M. A. (2021). A review on alkali-activated slag concrete. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 12(2), 1475–1499. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.12.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.12.003
Behzadian, M., Khanmohammadi Otaghsara, S., Yazdani, M., Ignatius, J. (2012). A state-of the-art survey of TOPSIS applications. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(17), 13051–13069. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.05.056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.05.056
Cong, P., Du, R., Gao, H., Chen, Z. (2024). Comparison and assessment of carbon dioxide emissions between alkali-activated materials and OPC cement concrete. Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition), 11(5), 918–938. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2023.07.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2023.07.011
Duxson, P., Fernández-Jiménez, A., Provis, J., Lukey, G., Palomo, A., Van Deventer, J. (2007). Geopolymer Technology: The Current State of the Art. Journal of Materials Science, 42, 2917–2933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0637-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0637-z
Farooq, F., Jin, X., Faisal Javed, M., Akbar, A., Izhar Shah, M., Aslam, F., Alyousef, R. (2021). Geopolymer concrete as sustainable material: A state of the art review. Construction and Building Materials, 306, 124762. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124762 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124762
Fernandez-Jimenez, A., García-Lodeiro, I., Palomo, A. (2007). Durability of alkali-activated fly ash cementitious materials. Journal of Materials Science, 42(9), 3055–3065. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0584-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0584-8
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Palomo, A. (2005). Composition and microstructure of alkali activated fly ash binder: Effect of the activator. Cement and Concrete Research, 35(10), 1984–1992. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.03.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.03.003
Hardjito, D., Wallah, S. E., Hardjito, D., Wallah, S. E., Sumajouw, D. M. J., Rangan, B. V. (2005). Introducing Fly Ash-based Geopolymer Concrete: Manufacture and Engineering Properties. 30 th Conference on OUR WORLD IN CONCRETE & STRUCTURES, January 2005, 23–24.
Heshmat, M., Amer, I., Elgabbas, F., Khalaf, M. A. (2024). Effect of binder and activator composition on the characteristics of alkali-activated slag-based concrete. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 13502. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-63214-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-63214-5
Hwang, C. L., Yoon, K. (1981). Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications. Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-48318-9
ASTM International. (2018). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. In ASTM C33/C33M-18. ASTM International.
ASTM International. (2020). ASTM C1437-20: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. ASTM International.
ASTM International. (2022). Standard Specification for Slag Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars. In ASTM C989/C989M-22. ASTM International.
ASTM International. (2023). ASTM C109/C109M: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars. ASTM International.
Jolliffe, I. T. (2002). Principal Component Analysis (2nd ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/b98835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/b98835
Kaliyavaradhan, S. K., Unnikrishnan, A., Ambily, P. (2024). CO 2 sequestration through alkali-activated steel slag: a review. Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 14, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2024.2434721 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2024.2434721
Law, D. W., Adam, A. A., Molyneaux, T. K., Patnaikuni, I. (2012). Durability assessment of alkali activated slag (AAS) concrete. Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Constructions, 45(9), 1425–1437. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-012-9842-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-012-9842-1
Liu, M., Dai, W., Jin, W. (2024). Mix proportion design and carbon emission assessment of high strength geopolymer concrete based on ternary solid waste. Scientific Reports, 14, 24989. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76774-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76774-3
Luukkonen, T., Abdollahnejad, Z., Yliniemi, J., Kinnunen, P., Illikainen, M. (2017). One-part alkali-activated materials: A review. Cement and Concrete Research, 103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.10.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.10.001
Madanchian, M., Taherdoost, H. (2023). A comprehensive guide to the TOPSIS method for multi-criteria decision making. Sustainable Social Development, 1(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.54517/ssd.v1i1.2220 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54517/ssd.v1i1.2220
Marathe, S., Sheshadri, A., Nikolaiev, V. (2025). Life cycle assessment of sustainable air-cured alkali-activated concrete for permeable pavements using agro-industrial wastes. Scientific Reports, 15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-04783-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-04783-x
Marvila, M. T., de Azevedo, A. R. G., de Oliveira, L. B., de Castro Xavier, G., Vieira, C. M. F. (2021). Mechanical, physical and durability properties of activated alkali cement based on blast furnace slag as a function of %Na2O. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 15(August), e00723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00723 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00723
Mohebi, R., Behfarnia, K., Shojaei, M. (2015). Abrasion resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete designed by Taguchi method. Construction and Building Materials, 98, 792–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2015.08.128 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.128
Nath, P., Sarker, P. K. (2014). Effect of GGBFS on setting, workability and early strength properties of fly ash geopolymer concrete cured in ambient condition. Construction and Building Materials, 66, 163–171. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.080 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.080
Provis, J., Deventer, J. (2014). Alkali Activated Materials: State-of-the-Art Report, RILEM TC 224-AAM. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7672-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7672-2
Provis, J. L. (2018). Alkali-activated materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 114, 110–120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.009
Qaidi, S., Najm, H. M., Abed, S. M., Ahmed, H. U., Al Dughaishi, H., Al Lawati, J., Sabri, M. M., Alkhatib, F., Milad, A. (2022). Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Composites: A Review of the Compressive Strength and Microstructure Analysis. Materials, 15(20). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207098 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207098
Schiefer, C., Plank, J. (2023). On the CO2 footprint of polycarboxylate superplasticizers (PCEs) and its impact on the eco balance of concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 409, 133944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133944 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133944
Sri Sunarsih, E., As’ad, S., Mohd.Sam, A. R., Kristiawan, S. (2024). The Effect of Alkali Activator to Binder Ratio on Workability, Density, and Compressive Strength of Fly Ash-Slag Based Geopolymer Mortar. Nano Hybrids and Composites, 45, 121–127. https://doi.org/10.4028/p-MfE2js DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/p-MfE2js
Taguchi, G. (1990). Introduction to Quality Engineering: Designing Quality into Products and Processes. Asian Productivity Organization.
Turner, L. K., Collins, F. G. (2013). Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) emissions: A comparison between geopolymer and OPC cement concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 43, 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.01.023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.01.023
Zhang, X. Y., Yu, R., Zhang, J. J., Shui, Z. H. (2022). A low-carbon alkali activated slag based ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC): Reaction kinetics and microstructure development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 363, 132416. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132416 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132416
Zheng, Y., Zhong, H., Sun, K., Shen, B., Cui, K., Zhao, Y., Xiong, G., Qin, Q. (2025). Effect of composite activator on hydration kinetics and micromechanical properties of alkali-activated slag. Cement and Concrete Composites, 160, 106047. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.106047 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.106047
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Adam, A. A., Ramadhan, B. R., Emeraldy, I. H., Kasim, A. P.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
_______________________________
License in effect from September 2020
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format for any purpose, even commercially.
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
- The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit , provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made . You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Notices:
You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation .
No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
.png)
