On the other hand, since 2012 (Lozano et al., 2022) there has been a report of 20,000,000 Mexicans living in social housing with medium-low sustainability characteristics, which barely meet the minimum standards established in the national regulations, associating high spending on housing and transportation (greater than 40% of income), poor social integration, and environmental impacts due to wastewater management and carbon footprint. In addition, housing developers currently choose to develop medium, residential and plus models, reducing the social housing stock by more than 50% between 2017 and 2022, with no mitigation of this problem expected in the short term, which increases the cost of commercially available housing (El Economista, 2022a).

Regarding solutions to these problems, the Architect Tatiana Bilbao presented at the Chicago Architecture Biennial in 2015, flexible family housing projects of 43 m² that can be built for $8,000-$14,000 USD, some details of their construction are: (i) the core of this house is built with concrete blocks and surrounding wooden modules, which are lighter and cheaper, allowing future expansions; (ii) in its first phase, it is designed to have 2 bedrooms, 1 bathroom and 1 living/dining room with 5 m height, with the capacity to expand to 5 bedrooms in its last phase; (iii) includes eco-technologies to maximize energy efficiency (ArchDaily, 2015; Instituto de la Vivienda, 2021). However, the strategy relies on cheap materials such as wood that require significant maintenance, being less durable than masonry blocks, bricks, or reinforced concrete.

On the other hand, there are federal organizations that offer economic support (Instituto de la Vivienda, 2021): CONAVI, Fondo Nacional de Habitaciones Populares (FONHAPO, subsidizes non-entitled individuals PIBWL, e.g.: with $40,000-53,000 to build or acquire housing, $15,000-20,000 to expand it, or $10,000-15,000 to improve it), Fondo de Vivienda del Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado (FOVISSSTE, subsidizes ISSSTE workers), the Sociedad Hipotecaria Federal (SHF, grants mortgage loans to non-entitled individuals through financial companies) and urban improvement programs (these seek to improve the living conditions of communities and neighborhoods with few resources and high rates of marginalization and violence, rehabilitating public spaces and homes that have possession, but not legal certainty of the land they occupy, regularizing the housing so that they request other supports and public services). It should be noted that, despite the efforts, housing affordability in the country decreased in 6.8% according to the SHF's Current State of Housing in Mexico report, so a balance of strategies and results indicated that Subsidy programs have been a favorable response, but these do not guarantee the right to adequate housing when subject to a mortgage loan (Tecnológico de Monterrey, 2021).

All of the above frames the general panorama of housing problems in Mexico and shows the need to promote new, more sustainable strategies that provide the population with a DASH in the current context, especially for the PIBWL, although without losing sight of the fact that the sector Housing is one of the main economic activities in the country, contributing with more than one trillion pesos in 2021 alone (5.7% of GDP). In addition, housing construction generated 2,366,767 jobs (5.8% of the national total) (INEGI, 2023). Therefore, building DASH must sustain the preponderant role of CI in the country's economic development.

2.1. Housing in Nuevo León

In the State of NL, INEGI indicated that the total number of inhabited homes in 2020 was 2,037,261 (4.7% of the national total), of which 286,185 were uninhabited (14.05% of the total) and 95,820 were for temporary use (0.05% of the total) (INEGI, 2020; Instituto de la Vivienda, 2021). In terms of the housing gap, 71,958 homes presented overcrowded conditions and other aspects that affect the life quality of the occupants, such as the deterioration of materials, construction with precarious materials (cardboard, palm, straw, etc.), dirt floors, lack of toilets or electricity, etc. In fact records show: 398,158 homes with one bedroom (19.54% of the total, mostly in Monterrey, Guadalupe, and Apodaca), 13,939 with dirt floors (concentrated in Monterrey, Juárez and General Escobedo) and 41,011 overcrowding (mainly in García, General Escobedo and Juárez) (Instituto de la Vivienda, 2021). All the above are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Housing status in Nuevo León according to INEGI (2020).

In terms of population, in 2022, 5,748,442 inhabitants were registered, of which 92% lived in the 18 municipalities of the metropolitan area, this being a crucial factor for the increase in demand for housing. NL was ranked 7th nationally for the number of inhabitants but regarding to the composition of the population and households, it ranked 1st in receiving Mexican and foreign migrants (113,541 people registered in 2020), looking for better job opportunities. Furthermore, 50.4% of the population was economically active with an average monthly salary of $8,980 (Gobierno de México, 2023a; Instituto de la Vivienda, 2021), associating a significant number of PIBWLs without sufficient income to have the basic food basket, and adequate expenses for health, clothing, transportation, education, or housing. Likewise, there are people in similar conditions who need to improve their housing through DQHS, such as dirt floors, poor quality walls and ceilings, overcrowding, etc. The CONEVAL poverty report in 2020 showed that 1,123,100 inhabitants (21.1% of the population) are PIBWL in NL that do not have the capacity to access decent housing under current market conditions. This translates into 330,323 homes considering an average of 3.4 people/household according to INEGI (2020). In addition, there are 162,700 people (3.1% of the population) or 47,853 homes with DQHS, which require urgent support for maintenance or expansion; this was also related to their limited income, leading inhabitants to put the satisfaction of other basic survival needs first (INEGI, 2020).

Regarding the environmental impact, INEGI positioned NL as one of the six states that generated half of the country's waste (4.4% of the total) (Milenio, 2018), while the Secretaría de Desarrollo Sustentable (2020) of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (UANL) reported that construction activities contributed 10.77% of PM10 emissions in the State. Likewise, the Facultad de Arquitectura of the UANL reported that sustainable housing construction can positively influence serial construction costs, showing savings in energy and water consumption of 36% and 30% (Paz-Pérez, 2016). On the other hand, it was highlighted that the number of uninhabited and unmaintained homes in NL aggravate the environmental impact, since: (i) this imply the exploitation of resources that currently do not cover any need, (ii) premature and/or continuous degradation of homes reduces their useful life, (iii) which leads to the need to build new homes, (iv) as well as demolition and generation of waste in the future, (v) unnecessary expenses for corrective maintenance that exceed preventive maintenance, etc. Furthermore, it is striking that the sum of uninhabited homes and those in temporary use was equal to those required for the PIBWL and with DQHS registered in NL, which suggests the need to seek new solutions to (i) achieve the affordability of decent housing for the most vulnerable sector of the population and (ii) improve conditions for the less vulnerable population.

Relative to state strategies and the results obtained: the Cámara Nacional de Desarrollo y Promoción de Vivienda (CANADEVI) indicated in 2022 that 35% of families do not have access to decent housing, also noting a gap of 35% in the placement of homes, which was associated with factors such as the war in Ukraine, the variation in bank interest rates, the increase in construction inputs and green taxes (El Economista, 2022b). Likewise, CANADEVI reported that the goal in 2022 was to place 40,000-42,000 homes, while the demand for credits was 62,000, this contrasts with the average annual placement of 65,000 homes that occurred in the years prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, there was a deficit of 16,000 homes, highlighting that nearly 20,000 will be required next year, but only 4,000 were guaranteed. Additionally, the arrival of the Tesla company to the municipality of Santa Catarina will require 13,000 homes for 35,000 employees and their families, according to the management of the Instituto de Vivienda de NL (IVNL). For its part, INFONAVIT in NL announced in April 2023 that it would accommodate 46,000 housing loans (2,000 more than in 2022), counting at that time on the registration of 30,000 in the Single Housing Registry (El Economista, 2023).

It was reported that people acquire loans, but their income does not allow them to pay and, although there are resources available in the banking sector, there are few requests for loans because the product is very expensive. In fact, NL is the second State with the highest demand for housing, only after Mexico City (CDMX), presenting an average housing cost of $4,017,532, which is above the rest of the country except CDMX with $8,057,000 (Instituto de la Vivienda, 2021; Tecnológico de Monterrey, 2021). According to CANADEVI, 33% of the housing demanded exceeded $300,000 and 35% reached $800,000. The rise in housing prices also seriously hits young people who are starting their working lives, since cannot access decent housing, having to rent without the possibility of acquiring assets until a mature age (in the best case), with a lifelong debt or only getting a home on the outskirts of the urban area that involves long and expensive trips, with an enormous impact on their life quality that further aggravates the economic gap in Mexico.

Thus, INFONAVIT promoted interest rates between 3.5%-5% for 131,000 low-income workers, with a loan limit of $2,407,347 to buy a new or existing home (the amount of the loan granted depended on the payment capacity, salary, and age of the applicant) (Expansion, 2023). On the other hand, the government of NL proposed a subsidy program to non-entitled individuals through FOMERREY, to acquire sufficient, affordable, and adequate housing. In addition, it reduced the green tax for the extraction of stone resources from 1.5 to 0.8, encouraging a decrease in the prices of construction materials, while municipal governments encouraged the exemption of taxes on property acquisition (ISAI tax). Likewise, INFONAVIT was requested to strategically carry out new housing developments (CentroUrbano, 2023), for which CANADEVI promoted the benefits of the verticalization of housing, since 150 people contained in 25 hectares of land can have all the services in the same place (El Economista, 2022b).

3. DECENT HOUSING AND ITS CONTRASTS IN MEXICO

The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (art. 4) indicates that every family has the right to enjoy decent housing, which means that the State has the obligation to respect, protect and develop actions that allow people have adequate housing and its acquisition should not be excessive, compromising the satisfaction of other needs (Tecnológico de Monterrey, 2021). Likewise, the UN declared housing as a human, economic, social, and cultural right, and must be adequate in terms of tenure security, services availability, habitability, accessibility, location, cultural appropriateness, and affordability. UN also highlighted that its cost must be accessible to all people without endangering the enjoyment of other basic needs and human rights, so a home is affordable if the associated expenses require less than 30% of a person's income (UN-Habitat, 2019). Unfortunately, there is a significant gap between these requirements and the reality in Mexico.

The types of housing in Mexico are (Tecnológico de Monterrey, 2021): (i) Formal housing, developed by private individuals on habitable urban land. Its essential characteristic is land ownership, it is built with licenses and permits and meets habitability levels (space, structural safety, lighting, ventilation, construction regulations, basic urban services of water, drainage, electricity, roads and access to urban equipment, education, health, commerce, recreation and, work). (ii) Informal housing, developed by families through self-construction and self-management on non-developable land (ecological preservation, natural risk or socio-organizational), without security of land tenure, does not meet the habitability requirements. (iii) Rural housing, built in a rural environment of agricultural production, on communal ejidal land with a population < 10,000 inhabitants; there is security of land tenure, with minimum habitability levels (structural security, lighting, ventilation, may lack services health and energy). (iv) Indigenous rural housing, developed by families through self-management and community self-construction on communal rural indigenous land, with a population < 10,000 inhabitants and ethnic characteristics of local uses and customs, meeting traditional habitability levels without basic services or urban equipment.

On the other hand, the IVNL (2021) indicated that the causes of the housing problems in NL were: (i) Low income, associating inability to save and carry out maintenance on homes, leading to a precarious state and without access to any solution. (ii) Temporary housing (irregular settlements) corresponded to people in poverty without access to the formal housing market. They illegally access cheap land and self-build with perishable and not very strength materials, in risky areas with difficult access to basic services, promoting health problems and unsafe conditions in the face of natural disasters, etc. (iii) Insufficient self-construction processes due to the lack of immediate housing solutions for subsistence, lack of knowledge or adequate supervision. The housing construction advances according to the availability of resources, associating health problems due to the use of materials and the lack of training to build, poor distribution of spaces, kitchens in bedrooms, lack of toilets, waste of materials, etc. This accentuates the environmental impacts. (iv) Low educational-cultural level, complicating successful insertion into the labor market and social mobility. The average schooling in NL is 10.7 years, but it was highlighted that access to education did not ensure quality learning, limiting the individual's opportunities.

Likewise, according to the IVNL (2021), the effects of housing problems are: (i) The deterioration of housing due to lack of maintenance, aggravating persistent damage (structural, humidity, dirt floors, cracks in walls or lack of doors and windows), which affects the life quality. (ii) Greater vulnerability to natural disasters, e.g., temporary housing has a high probability of being affected, destroyed, suffering from accidents or integrity problems. (iii) Homes with structural risk, without quality services or spaces. It is an effect of self-construction and settlement on remote or irregular lands without preparation for connection to the public water, drainage, or electricity network, making its provision complicated, dangerous or illegal. Furthermore, irregular, or neglected homes run the constant risk of suffering structural damage at any time, offering poor protection from the exterior. Therefore, the state of the art of the I3DMC in terms of CE and the suitability to achieve its application in the IC of Mexico is discussed in the following section, which includes the analysis of the conditions for NL as a first scenario.

4. 3D PRINTING OF CEMENTITIOUS MEXITURES AND ITS APPLICATION POTENTIAL IN MEXICO

To understand the advantages of 3DPCM, it should be noted that the conventional methods of informal construction and self-construction such as on-site concreting predominate in Latin America and Mexico, resulting in over-designed, low-quality housing, intensive use of resources, high generation of waste of materials, precarious procedures, inadequate storage, poor planning, and other typical characteristics of developing countries (Villagrán-Zaccardi et al., 2022). Therefore, reducing self-construction is one of the great challenges of Latin American CI to achieve sustainability goals, which involves strategies such as replacing the use of packaged cement with (Mendoza-Rangel et al., 2023, Villagrán-Zaccardi et al., 2022): (i) Cement and packed mortar with low embedded carbon and clinker content (cement phase that associates the greatest environmental impact in the production of CP). (ii) Premixed concrete and mortar, as well as prefabricated concrete structures. This allows the properties and quantities of material to be optimized, although it associates an environmental impact due to the use of CP and transportation to the work site. (iii) The 3DPCM, which integrates digitalization and automation in the construction process through a multifunctional robotic printer operated from a 3D modeled design.

It highlights that the 3DPCM offers unique advantages (OSHA, 2022; Robayo-Salazar et al., 2022; Villagrán-Zaccardi et al., 2022): (i) An unlimited potential for the construction and efficient verticalization of homes, apartments, bridges, and barracks in active war zones. (ii) Designs have unlimited options for creativity, originality, and complexity, due to the freedom of symmetrical and asymmetrical design. It allows structural or architectural optimization, reducing the gap between engineering and design, integrating bioclimatic architecture, eco-technologies, smart materials, etc. These are advantages related to the precision and control of this construction process. (iii) CI is the 9th most dangerous professional space in the USA with 21% of total annual deaths (OSHA, 2022). 3DPCM reduces the demand for conventional labor, requiring few specialized personnel. Also, avoid problems due to self-construction and inadequate supervision. (iv) 3DPCM minimizes the use of formwork, since the placement of layers upon layers of fast-curing cementitious mixtures allows them to be self-sustaining, mitigating the use of wood, aluminum, or steel. (v) It allows the design of embedded low-carbon cement, mortar, and concrete inks, as well as its manufacturing by specification since it integrates a mixing system similar to premixed or prefabricated concrete. Likewise, the inks can be made from industrial waste and regional materials to replace CP (e.g., slag, fly ash, cane bagasse ash, calcined clay, limestone, alkaline activated cements, etc.), depending on the desired properties (e.g., thermal, and acoustic insulation, mechanical strength, durability, etc.). It is worth mentioning that cementitious mixtures with the potential to capture environmental CO₂ are being developed, which could be an interesting option in the future of 3D printing (Kaliyavaradhan et al., 2020). (vi) 3DPCM simplifies construction planning and eliminates the environmental impact of transportation associated with the supply of ready-mixed or precast concrete.

In this context, the progress achieved by 3DPCM companies worldwide should be highlighted. For example, the Chinese company Winsun presented the following performances compared to conventional construction (WINSUN, 2014; ArchDaily, 2014): (i) The construction of 10 houses in 24 hours and an office building in Dubai, reducing 30% construction time. (ii) Savings in construction and labor costs of 80%. (iii) The reduction of waste from 30% to 60% depending on the size of the printed elements. (iv) 50% of the concrete used came from construction waste. On the other hand, being pioneers in the world, the government of the United Arab Emirates and Dubai stated in their 3D Printing Strategy in 2015 that 25% of their buildings will be printed by 2025, reducing labor by 70% and costs by 90%, while construction time is 10% of that spent in conventional construction, according to the Dubai Future Foundation. The initiative includes printing products for lighting, foundations, construction joints, facilities, parks, humanitarian buildings, and mobile housing (ArchDaily, 2018). Likewise, regarding modular construction with 3DPCM, in 2021 the first 94 m² home was delivered in the Netherlands, composed of 24 factory-printed elements transported to the construction site, integrating inclined roofs and walls in a bioclimatic architecture design with thermal insulation and connection to the heating network, achieving an energy performance coefficient of 0.25 for a highly comfortable and energy efficient home (ArchDaily, 2021a). It should be mentioned that the thermal, and acoustic comfort properties can be expected in the 3DPCM, due to the design customization and the environmental conditions adaptation, the use of efficient insulating materials or systems, as well as the precision and consistency of the technique. In fact, García-Alvarado et al. (2020) reported that the CI in Chile was interested in 3DPCM due to envelopes with high thermal and earthquake-resistant capacities in affordable housing. The former due to the extrusion system in two parallel walls with an internal void, while the latter required a specialized design. Regarding construction in marginalized areas, there is a report from the American company ICON and the New Story organization that printed two houses for PIBWL families in Tabasco in 2019. In this case, it was possible for the concrete ink to take advantage of local resources, obtaining an off-white look in the 3D-printed elements (ArchDaily, 2021b).

The advantages offered by 3DPCM, and the advances presented by this industry were related to the physical, mechanical, durability, and sustainability properties that can be achieved with 3D-printed elements. For example, compared to conventional concrete, 3DPCM has been able to achieve similar or superior quasi-isotropic mechanical and durability performance using high-performance admixtures and admixtures, functioning as monoliths and avoiding weak points in the joints between layers (CEMEX, 2022; Ma et al., 2019; MARQ, 2021; Murcia et al., 2020; Ye et al., 2021). Table 3 shows some comparative examples for mechanical properties. It should be noted that at the industrial level, similar strength has been achieved between 3D-printed elements and those produced in conventional construction, but companies must develop their own inks using regional cementitious materials, aggregates and chemical additives, considering the environmental conditions since there are currently no international standards that regulate their manufacture and, therefore, the evaluation of the performance of 3DPCM elements has been made based on matching the standardized properties for conventional concrete or developing local regulations (Be more 3D, 2024). In addition to the development of standards, another important challenge in the development of 3DPCM is the incorporation of different types of materials (e.g., industrial wastes, geopolymers, earths and clays, etc.) to produce cementitious inks that simultaneously achieve optimal rheological properties for 3D-printing and mechanical performance in the hardened state (Ahmed, 2023; Song and Li, 2021).

Table 3. Comparison of mechanical properties for conventional and 3D-printed concrete.

Regarding the durability of inks and 3D-printers, both show minimal long-term maintenance if (Jo et al., 2020; Nohedi et al., 2022): (i) the ink was optimized to achieve the least number of joints and seams, reducing water or air leakage; (ii) the 3D-printer received continuous cleaning to avoid hardening of the inks in the extrusion and pumping systems. Specifically, 3DPCM elements has shown variable durability results with respect to conventional construction (Table 4), which lies in the optimization of the mix design and printing parameters to achieve the necessary densification in the 3D-printed element, preventing the penetration of chlorides, sulfates, and other deteriorating agents (Natives3D, 2018; Nohedi et al., 2022; Rehman et al., 2021; Xiao et al., 2021). Therefore, optimizing the extrusion process is key because it modifies the pore morphology and compactness of the 3D-printed element to limit the ingress of aggressive agents (El Inaty et al., 2022). On the other hand, the accuracy and consistency of 3DPCM contribute to quality control, decreasing the variability of durability properties. However, the use of advanced materials is also possible to decrease structural or durability problems, e.g., in the case where reinforcement is required in the 3D-printed element, it is possible to introduce rods, wire or steel fibers, basalt, polypropylene, etc. (Ding et al., 2020; El Inaty et al., 2022; Robayo-Salazar et al., 2023; Sikora et al., 2022; Song and Li, 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). It is worth mentioning that research on 3D-printed elements for different exposure conditions and aggressive agents is still ongoing, therefore the 3DPCM should be adapted to the regions of the country, being evaluated for long periods of time, and seeking the optimization of durability properties using local materials (Mendoza-Rangel and Diaz-Aguilera, 2023; Song and Li, 2021).

Table 4. Comparison of durability for conventional and 3D-printed concrete.

Considering the environmental impact and sustainability of 3DPCM when compared to conventional concrete (Figure 1), reductions were reported in (i)12%-88% of CO₂ emissions of, (ii) 20%-50% of the environmental impact associated with sand and steel , ( iii) 86%-87% of energy consumption , (iv) 12%-55% of embodied energy , (v) 55%-77% of global warming potential , (vi) 4%-53% of environmental toxicity, as well as (vii) an increase in productivity of 47%-48.1% (Motalebi et al., 2023). Other aspects of sustainability were compared in Table 5. It is interesting to mention that these results were associated with the use of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), and could be interestingly improved using alternative cementitious inks developed for 3D-printing in Nuevo León, Mexico such as alkaline activated metakaolin (MK) with high quantities of pulverized limestone (LS) (up to 80%), which was developed considering EC Efficient Design criteria such as using medium-high purity MK, optimizing the kaolin-metakaolin transformation route that minimized calcination time, developing design and optimization methodologies for the chemical composition to maximize mechanical, durability and sustainability properties, etc. (Díaz-Aguilera, 2024). Recently, these cementitious mixtures were validated as inks to be used in 3D-printing, achieving satisfactory results without the need to use chemical additives (Perales-Santillan et al., 2024).

Figure 1. Ventajas en los aspectos del impacto ambiental de la impresión 3D de materiales cementantes con respecto del concreto convencional (adaptado de Motalebi y col., 2023).

Table 5. Comparison in sustainability aspects for conventional and 3D-printed concrete.

The preliminary results showed that only the cementitious ink presented a 77.5% reduction in the CO₂ emissions associated with the OPC manufacturing process (Díaz-Aguilera, 2024), which must be added to the reduction related to a 3D-printing construction process. It is worth mentioning that this optimized mixture with 80%LS exceeded the OPC by 228.5 efficient design units (edu), according to a proposed EC indicator that considered mechanical, durability, and sustainability performance; while an optimized mixture with 30%LS surpassed it by 1147.2 edu (Díaz-Aguilera, 2024). Furthermore, another study of these optimized cementitious materials using high-purity MK showed a 42.6% reduction in production cost compared to a composite Portland cement (CPC) (Perez-Cortes and Escalante-Garcia, 2020). The above is an example of the cementitious inks under development in Nuevo León, Mexico (UANL-FIC, 2023), which suggests that 3DPCM technologies can be even more efficient in combination with other Mexican developments.

Likewise, the impact on the economy and working conditions must be considered when analyzing the sustainability of the 3DPCM. Initially, a mass use of the 3DPCM in Mexico would not be expected, which would drastically reduce the hiring of construction personnel. This is considered a disadvantage of 3 the DPCM, although it also suggests the need for an update in CI through specialized staff training (Amhed, 2023; De Schutter et al., 2018). However, the multiple advantages of the 3DPCM make it one of the most sustainable and profitable technologies to exploit, as confirmed by the exponential growth of investment in this technology that is currently being experienced, which is reflected in the number of companies that already operate in developed countries such as the USA, China, United Arab Emirates, Canada, Japan and Spain (ArchDaily, 2018; Be more 3D, 2024; Motalebi et al., 2023; Winsun, 2014). In fact, the company CEMEX (2022), in collaboration with the international printer company COBOD, announced in September 2023 the introduction of the first 3D concrete printer in Mexico in order to innovate in the development of inks made of concrete, which shows the interest in introducing 3DPCMC’s technology in the Mexican market. It is worth mentioning. It should be noted that acquiring and putting into operation a COBOD printer (2023) costs around $400,000-$1,000,000 dollars, making it relatively difficult to access in developing countries. The above means that 3DPCM technology is being intensively researched worldwide to progressively introduce it into the markets and the key is in the development of functional, robust, and durable 3D printers, as well as cementitious inks with printability, mechanical strength, durability, and low environmental impact (Robayo-Salazar et al., 2023).

Another aspect of interest related to the sustainability of 3DPCM is the cost of housing construction, therefore, a comparative analysis of cost/m² between conventional construction and 3DPCM was conducted (Table 6), considering that: (i) the average cost for conventional housing in Mexico from 2019 to 2024 increased from $5,777.5-$6,213/m² to $6,896.55-$9,266/m², while the direct cost of social housing increased 2.07% from March 2023 to March 2024 (CMIC-CEICO, 2023; GAMA Arquitectura, 2024; GRUPO QVICK, 2023; Miranda, 2019). (ii) Kreiger et al. (2019) estimated for 3D-printed housing that their construction achieved a cost reduction of 10-25% or 25-37% compared to using masonry or conventional concrete, respectively; likewise, it was estimated that the cost reduction with respect to conventional construction reached 50% in India in 2023, while the average cost in Russia reached $4770/m². On the other hand, in 2018 the company ICON printed 60 m² houses for an average cost of $2,800/m² in Austin, planning to reduce it to $1,200/m² in El Salvador (EnteUrbano, 2020; Forbes México, 2018; Kreiger et al. 2019; Vijayalaxmi et al., 2023). Thus, for a medium and low socioeconomic stratum, it can be estimated that the cost in Mexico could be reduced from $6,000-$9,000/m² to $1,700-$4,500/m², additionally involving the reduction of waste on site, design flexibility and shorter construction time. It is worth mentioning that the general composition of the profit/cost ratio of constructions is around 2/1-3/1 and it can be established that 50% of the construction cost is for labor and 50% for materials.

Table 6. Comparison of cost/m² for conventional and 3D-printing construction for Mexico.

A second analysis can be carried out considering that the performance of 3DPCM technologies allows (i) the construction of homes ensuring the quality and durability, as well as structural safety of the materials, including in the face of natural disasters, (ii) positively impacting credits and support regardless of its nature, this due to the reduction of housing costs, as well as (iii) providing the habitability characteristics stipulated by UN-Habitat (2019) and the IVNL (2021), especially bringing the goal of requiring 30% of income determined for affordable housing (UN-Habitat, 2019). Thus, it would be possible to finance a cost of $8,000-$14,000 dollars in 5-8 years (ArchDaily, 2015) when considering as an example the average income in NL (Gobierno de México, 2023a) and the cost of the project of the Architect Tatiana Bilbao, however, its project was designed for conventional construction, so using 3DPCM would mean an improvement in strength, durability, sustainability, costs, etc.

Therefore, the housing construction by 3DPCM promotes the scope of DASH in a way that had not been previously proposed in the CI, in contrast to diversifying economic supports for applicants, but not dealing with the main current core problem of housing: its cost. This would provide access of DASH to the most vulnerable sector of the population, but it also suggests the achievement of higher sustainability levels for the population with a higher income, since, for the cost of conventional commercial housing the following characteristics could be added: high energy efficiency technologies, self-healing or photocatalytic coatings cements for CO₂ capture, smart windows, solar panels and heaters, bioclimatic designs using complex geometries, etc. However, there is a need for research and development of Mexican technology in terms of cementing inks and 3D printers based on EC's efficient design criteria, making these technologies available to the population and housing developers in a more affordable way in our country.

4.1. Circularity analysis of 3D-printed DASH: possible scenario for Mexico

In favor of the sustainable development of the country and based on Mexican technology, construction with 3DPCM promotes a drastic reduction in costs, which would be enough to provide DASH to PIBWL. This could significantly reduce socio-environmental problems with strategies such as: (i) taking advantage of current subsidies to acquire-improve-expand a home, facilitating access to financing and preventing delinquencies for smaller amounts, which would be more proportional to income of the PIBWL. This reduces financing times and, above all, allows respecting the limit of 30% of income established by UN-Habitat (2019) that determines affordable housing, as well as solving DQHS, which on the other hand supports the satisfaction of other basic needs. (ii) The efficiency of the construction process by 3DPCM results in the rapid generation of affordable housing, allowing the housing deficit to be reduced, even with high demand. This also promotes improved urban planning that achieves placement and avoids vacant housing built with 3DPCM. (iii) The access of the PIBWL to the DASH market mitigates the problem of informal housing (e.g., self-construction, lack of maintenance, precariousness, uncontrolled urban growth, little social integration, settlement in ecological preservation areas, vulnerability against natural phenomena, structural risk, little protection from the outside, etc.), due to compliance with the requirements for a decent home according to UN-Habitat and the Mexican Constitution, i.e., homes built using durable, strong and high-quality materials on 3DPCM floors, walls and ceilings, using an energy-efficient, structural and architectural design that optimizes the spaces, their functionality, energy consumption, comfort and the use of housing resources, complying with permits and ground construction regulations for formal housing developments, carried out under the specialized supervision of 3DPCM, ensuring access to public services and reducing overcrowding and housing backwardness. (iv) Likewise, it can provide solutions to the problems of improving and expanding housing, temporary housing, as well as public spaces in communities and neighborhoods. It should be noted that the 3D-printed elements have better properties compared to concrete blocks, bricks, or wood, which is why 3DPCM minimize the need for maintenance, extending the useful life and improving other affordable housing proposals such as that of the Architect Tatiana Bilbao (ArchDaily, 2015). (v) All of the above improves the life quality and health of the inhabitants, but also the reduction of the CI environmental impact could achieve sustainability goals while maintaining its leading role in the country in economic terms. In addition, strategic alliances and public policies should be created to facilitate the acquisition of 3D-printed DASH, mainly for PIBWL.

In terms of the SDGs (United Nations, 2015), the 3DPCM impacts by reducing: CO₂ emissions, energy demand, waste generation, intensive use of natural resources; and increasing the reuse of by-products and local resources; as well as developing more efficient processes and technologies: (i) The 3DPCM allows the efficient use of construction materials, dosing and depositing precise amounts of water, cement, additives, stone aggregates, etc. This reduces quarry extraction, construction waste, as well as the CO₂ emissions associated with the production of materials, which indirectly also promotes affordable cost of DASH. Likewise, the implementation of DASH prevents irregular settlements in eco-protected areas, promoting the controlled growth of cities. The above impacts the SDG-6 of clean water and sanitation, the SDG-7 of affordable and non-polluting energy, as well as the SDG-15 of life in terrestrial ecosystems. (ii) Since efficiency and environmental impact are optimized through the digitalization and automation of a multifunctional robot, and 3DPCM promotes modular construction, it impacts the SDG-9 on industry, innovation, and infrastructure, as well as the SDG-12 on responsible production and consumption are impacted. (iii) The construction of cities by 3D-printing mitigates the climate change due to low environmental impact practices, efficient, bioclimatic, and sustainable design, extension of durability, optimization of resources, etc. In addition, it requires strategic alliances between the public and private sectors to achieve the SDGs, the development of research and new Mexican technologies for the construction of DASH. This impacts the SDG-11 of sustainable cities and communities, the SDG-13 of climate action and the SDG-17 of alliances to achieve the SDGs. (iv) Other benefits of the 3DPCM are related to: the SDG-3 of health and well-being, by improving people's life quality; the SDG-8 of decent work and economic growth, by creating new economic opportunities, sustainable enterprises, and business models; the SDG-4 of quality education, because 3DPCMC's technological development allows students to simultaneously learn design, science, engineering, and manufacturing processes in a practical way.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The sustainable development of Mexico through the application of the Circular Economy in the Construction Industry provides solutions such as 3D-printing of cementitious mixtures, which would bring decent, affordable, and sustainable housing to the general population, meeting the Goals of Sustainable Development of the United Nations and the Federal Government. This is due to the various advantages associated with the automation of the construction process using a robot, highlighting (a) the reduction of labor, accidents and human errors, (b) the optimization in the use of materials and quality control of the properties due to the precision during the mixing, pumping and printing procedure of the cementitious mixtures, as well as (c) the high construction performance, which reduces construction times and allows modular construction through 3D-printed prefabricated parts. The above implies a significant reduction in environmental impact and costs (from $6,000-$9,000/m² to $1,700-$4,500/m²) with respect to conventional construction according to current estimates but surpassing other sustainable proposals in quality due to mechanical performance and durability or matching the performance of conventional concrete by appropriately optimizing the properties of the 3D-printed elements. However, it is possible to achieve superior advantages by using (a) Mexican alternative cement technologies or waste materials for inks, (b) in addition to implementing, for the same cost as conventional commercial housing, advanced technologies of high energy efficiency, capture of CO₂, eco-technologies, bioclimatic architectural designs, etc. It is expected that this work will contribute to the dissemination and discussion of national solutions for the integration of (i) the circular economy in the construction industry, (ii) achieving decent, affordable, and sustainable housing, as well as (iii) the development of Mexican technology for 3D-printers and cementing inks, giving rise to technology-based companies in this area.

6. ACKNOWLEDMENTS

J.H. Díaz-Aguilera, J.R. Zapata-Padilla, S. Mares-Chávez, F.D. Anguiano-Pérez, M.I. Velásquez-Hernández, E.E. Espino-Robles, J.I. Alvarado-López and J.A. Mendoza-Jiménez thank CONAHCYT for the scholarships provided to CVUs 929098, 946425, 1346629, 554927, 1041129, 1305949, 994896 y 591308, respectively.

8. REFERENCES

Abdalla, H., Fattah, K.P., Abdallah, M., Tamimi, A.K. (2021), Environmental Footprint and Economics of a Full-Scale 3D-Printed House. Sustainability. 13:11978. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111978.

Adesina, A. (2020), Recent advances in the concrete industry to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions. Env. Challen. 1:100004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2020.100004

Adesina, A. (2021), Circular Economy in the Concrete Industry. Build. Eng. 43:103233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103233

Ahmed, G.H. (2023) A review of “3D concrete printing”: Materials and process characterization, economic considerations and environmental sustainability. J. Build. Eng. 66:105863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.105863

Alkhalidi, A, Hatuqay, D. (2020), Energy efficient 3D printed buildings: Material and techniques selection worldwide study. J. Build. Eng. 30:101286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101286

ArchDaily (2015), Tatiana Bilbao’s $8,000 House Could Solve Mexico’s Social Housing Shortage. Accessed on September 28, 2023, at: Accessed on September 28, 2023, at: https://www.archdaily.com/775233/tatiana-bilbaos-8000-house-could-solve-mexicos-social-housing-shortage

ArchDaily (2018), Dubai planifica imprimir en 3D el 25% de sus nuevos edificios en 2025. Accessed on September 30, 2023, at: Accessed on September 30, 2023, at: https://www.archdaily.mx/mx/901205/dubai-planifica-imprimir-en-3d-el-25-percent-de-sus-nuevos-edificios-en-2025

ArchDaily (2021a), El futuro es ahora: Casas impresas en 3D comienzan a ser habitadas en los Países Bajos. Accessed on September 30, 2023, at: Accessed on September 30, 2023, at: https://www.archdaily.mx/mx/961093/el-futuro-es-ahora-casas-impresas-en-3d-comienzan-a-ser-habitadas-en-los-paises-bajos#:~:text=los%20Pa%C3%ADses%20Bajos-,El%20futuro%20es%20ahora%3A%20Casas%20impresas%20en%203D%20comienzan%20a,habitadas%20en%20los%20Pa%C3%ADses%20Bajos&text=Si%20hace%20algunos%20a%C3%B1os%20la,que%20ha%20llegado%20para%20quedarse.

ArchDaily (2021b), La estética de la automatización: análisis de una vivienda asequible impresa en 3D. Accessed on September 30, 2023, at: Accessed on September 30, 2023, at: https://www.archdaily.mx/mx/964468/la-estetica-de-la-automatizacion-analisis-de-una-vivienda-asequible-impresa-en-3d

Arunothayan, R., Nematollahi, B., Bong, S.H., Ranade, R., Sanjayan, J. (2020), Hardened Properties of 3D Printable Ultra-High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete for Digital Construction Applications. Rheol. Proc. Constr. Mater. 23: 355-362). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22566-7_41

Baskar, S., Sharma, R., Chinnappan, A., Sehrawat, R. (2021), “Handbook of Solid Waste Management”, Singapore, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7525-9_64-1

Baz, B., Aouad, G., Leblond, P., Al-Mansouri, O., D’hondt, M., Remond, S. (2020). Mechanical assessment of concrete - Steel bonding in 3D printed elements. Constr. Build. Mater. 256:119457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119457

Be more 3D (2024), Por fin construcción y sencillez unidas. Accessed on April 11, 2024, at: Accessed on April 11, 2024, at: https://bemore3d.com/

Buswell, R.A., Soar, R.C, Gibb, A.G.F., Thorpe, A. (2007), Freeform Construction: Mega-scale Rapid Manufacturing for construction. Automation in Construction, Volume 16, Issue 2, Pages 224-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2006.05.002.

CEMEX (2022), CEMEX es la primera compañía que introduce impresión 3D con concreto en México. Accessed on September 1, 2023, at: Accessed on September 1, 2023, at: https://www.cemexmexico.com/-/cemex-es-primera-compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa-que-introduce-impresi%C3%B3n-3d-con-concreto-en-m%C3%A9xico#:~:text=CEMEX%20es%20Primera%20Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa%20que%20Introduce%20Impresi%C3%B3n%203D%20con%20Concreto%20en%20M%C3%A9xico,-Monterrey%2C%20M%C3%A9xico%2004&text=CEMEX%2C%20S.A.B.%20de%20C.V.%20(%E2%80%9C,y%20de%20grado%20de%20construcci%C3%B3n.

CentroUrbano (2023), Nuevo León presenta su Programa Especial de Vivienda 2022-2027. Accessed on September 29, 2023, at: Accessed on September 29, 2023, at: https://centrourbano.com/vivienda/nuevo-leon-programa-vivienda/

Cicione, A., Kruger, J., Richard Walls, S., Van Zijl, G. (2021), An experimental study of the behavior of 3D printed concrete at elevated temperatures. Fire Safety J. 120:103075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2020.103075.

CMIC-CEICO (2023), Principales variaciones en el precio de los insumos y su impacto en las obras. Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: https://www.cmic.org.mx/comisiones/Tematicas/costosyp/Informes_IPP/2023/CEICO_Informe_Octubre_2023.pdf

Colorado, H. A., Velásquez, E. I. G., Monteiro, S. N. (2020), Sustainability of additive manufacturing: the circular economy of materials and environmental perspectives. J. Mater. Res. Tech. 9(4):8221-8234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.062

De Schutter, G., Lesage, K., Mechtcherine, V., Nerella, V.N., Habert, G., Agusti-Juan, I. (2018), Vision of 3D printing with concrete—Technical, economic and environmental potentials. Cem. Concr. Res. 112:25-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.06.001

De Souza, E.A., Borges, P.H., Stengel, T., Nematollahi, B., Bos, F.P. (2024), 3D printed sustainable low-cost materials for construction of affordable social housing in Brazil: Potential, challenges, and research needs. J. Build. Eng. 87:108985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108985

Díaz-Aguilera, J.H. (2024), “Estudio del diseño eficiente, optimización, durabilidad y sostenibilidad de una pasta de cemento activado alcalinamente con base en metacaolín y piedra caliza”, PhD Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León.

Ding, T., Xiao, J., Zou, S., Zhou, X (2020), Anisotropic behavior in bending of 3D printed concrete reinforced with fibers. Compos. Struct., 254:112808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2020.112808

El Economista. (2022a). Hay que hacer algo rápido: Gene Towle sobre la falta de oferta de vivienda social. Accessed on August 29, 2023, at: Accessed on August 29, 2023, at: https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/econohabitat/Hay-que-hacer-algo-rapido-Gene-Towle-sobre-la-falta-de-oferta-de-vivienda-social-20220325-0091.html

El Economista (2022b), Canadevi advierte rezago del 30% en colocación de vivienda en Nuevo León. Accessed on September 25, 2023, at: Accessed on September 25, 2023, at: https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/estados/Canadevi-advierte-rezago-del-30-en-colocacion-de-vivienda-en-Nuevo-Leon-20220921-0129.html

El Economista (2023), Nuevo León se presentará un programa para complementar créditos por déficit de 16,000 viviendas. Accessed on September 25, 2023, at: Accessed on September 25, 2023, at: https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/estados/Nuevo-Leon-se-presentara-un-programa-para-complementar-creditos-por-deficit-de-16000-viviendas-20230423-0008.html

El Inaty, F., Baz, B.A., Aouad, G. (2022). Long-term durability assessment of 3D printed concrete. J. Adhesion Sci. Technol. 37:1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2022.2102717

EnteUrbano (2020), ¿Cuánto cuesta una casa impresa en 3D?. Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: https://enteurbano.com/cuanto-cuesta-una-casa-impresa-en-3d/#google_vignette

European Parliament (2023), Circular economy: definition, importance and benefits. Accessed 17 April 2024 in: Accessed 17 April 2024 in: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/es/article/20151201STO05603/economia-circular-definicion-importancia-y-beneficios

Forbes México (2018), 100 casas serán construidas con impresoras 3D en El Salvador. Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: https://www.forbes.com.mx/casas-seran-construidas-con-impresoras-3d-en-el-salvador/

Fořt, J., Černý, R. (2020), Transition to circular economy in the construction industry: Environmental aspects of waste brick recycling scenarios. Was. Manag. 118:510-520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.09.004

García-Alvarado, R., Martínez, A., González, L., Auat, F. (2020), Projections of 3D-printed construction in Chile. Rev. Ing. Constr. 25:60-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-50732020000100060

GAMA Arquitectura (2024), ¿Cuánto cuesta construir una casa en México?. Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: Accessed on April 17, 2024, at: https://www.tallergama.com/cuanto-cuesta-construir-una-casa/

Gobierno de México (2023a), Data México: Nuevo León. Accessed on September 27, 2023, at: Accessed on September 27, 2023, at: https://www.economia.gob.mx/datamexico/es/profile/geo/nuevo-leon-nl

Gobierno de México (2023b), Conferencia Matutina Jueves 9 de febrero de 2023. Accessed on October 5, 2023, at: Accessed on October 5, 2023, at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_et4AjkIs8w

GRUPO QVICK (2023), ¿Cuánto cuesta construir una casa en 2024? - MéxicoAccessed on April 18, 2024 at: GRUPO QVICK (2023), ¿Cuánto cuesta construir una casa en 2024? - MéxicoAccessed on April 18, 2024 at: https://www.grupoqvick.com/post/cu%C3%A1nto-cuesta-construir-una-casa-en-2023#:~:text=Construir%20una%20casa%20de%20inter%C3%A9s,es%20de%20%2423%2C762.37%2F%20m2%20promedio

He, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, C., Zhou, H. (2020), Energy-saving potential of 3D printed concrete building with integrated living wall. Energy Build. 222:110110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110110

HOLCIM México (2024), Impresión 3d en la construcción: transformando el futuro con holcim. Accessed on April 18, 2024, at: Accessed on April 18, 2024, at: https://www.holcim.com.mx/impresion-3d

Hossain, M. U., Ng, S. T., Antwi-Afari, P., Ben Amor (2020), Circular economy and the construction industry: Existing trends, challenges and prospective framework for sustainable construction. Ren. Sust. Ener. Rev. 130:109948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109948

INEGI (2020), Panorama sociodemográfico de México 2020. Accessed on September 26, 2023, at: Accessed on September 26, 2023, at: https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825197926.pdf

INEGI (2021), Encuesta Nacional de Vivienda 2020. Accessed on September 27, 2023, at: Accessed on September 27, 2023, at: https://inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2021/envi/ENVI2020.pdf

INEGI (2023), Indicador mensual de la actividad industrial por entidad federativa 2023. Accessed on September 1, 2023, at: Accessed on September 1, 2023, at: https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2023/imaief/imaief2023_06.pdf

Instituto de la Vivienda (2021), Diagnostico Instituto de la Vivienda de Nuevo León. Accessed on October 9, 2023, at: Accessed on October 9, 2023, at: https://pbr-sed.nl.gob.mx/sites/default/files/diagnostico_ivnl.pdf

Interempresas (2020), Arquitectura y construcción. Accessed on September 28, 2023, at: Accessed on September 28, 2023, at: https://www.interempresas.net/Construccion/Articulos/298814-Cada-metro-cuadrado-construido-en-edificacion-residencial-supone-441-Kg-de-CO2.html

Jo., J.H., Jo, B.W., Cho, W., Kim, J.H. (2020). Development of a 3D Printer for Concrete Structures: Laboratory Testing of Cementitious Materials. Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. 14:13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40069-019-0388-2

Joh, C., Lee, J., Bui, T.Q., Park, J., Yang, I.H. (2020), Buildability and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Concrete. Materials, 13(21):4919. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13214919

Kaliyavaradhan, S. K., Tung-Chai, L., Mo, K. H. (2020), CO2 sequestration of fresh concrete slurry waste: Optimization of CO2 uptake and feasible use as a potential cement binder. J. CO2 Util. 42:101330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2020.101330

Khan, S.A., Koç, M., Al-Ghamdi, S.G. (2021), Sustainability assessment, potentials and challenges of 3D printed concrete structures: A systematic review for built environmental applications. J. Clean. Prod. 303:127027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127027

Kreiger, E., Kreiger, M., Case, M. (2019), Development of the Construction Processes for Reinforced Additively Constructed Concrete. Additive Manufact. 28:39-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.015

Liu, C., Yue, S., Zhou, C., Sun, H., Deng, S., Gao, F., Tan, Y. (2021), Anisotropic mechanical properties of extrusion-based 3D printed layered concrete. J. Mater. Sci. 56(30):16851-16864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-021-06416-w

Lozano, G.O., Sánchez, O.S. (2022), Vivienda en México, un problema de calidad, de habitabilidad, del barrio y de la ciudad. Variantes a la medición del rezago. Accessed on September 25, 2023, at: Accessed on September 25, 2023, at: https://revistaeypp.flacso.org.ar/files/revistas/1667932268_143-171.pdf

Ma, G., Li, Z., Wang, L., Wang, F., Sanjayan., J. (2019), Mechanical anisotropy of aligned fiber reinforced composite for extrusion-based 3D printing. Constr. Build. Maters. 202:770-783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.008

MARQ (2021). Se logra impresión 3D del concreto más resistente. Accessed on September 1, 2023, at: Accessed on September 1, 2023, at: https://marq.mx/es/se-logra-impresion-3d-del-concreto-mas-resistente/

Marsh, A. T. M., Velenturf, A. P. M., Bernal, S. A. (2022), Circular Economy strategies for concrete: implementation and integration. J. Clean. Produc. 362:132486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132486

Murcia, D.H., Genedy, M., Taha., M.M.R. (2020), Examining the significance of infill printing pattern on the anisotropy of 3D printed concrete. Constr. Build. Maters. 262:120559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120559

Maury-Ramírez, A., Illera-Perozo, D., Mesa, J. A. (2022), Circular Economy in the Construction Sector: A Case Study of Santiago de Cali (Colombia). Sust. 14(3):1923. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031923

Mendoza-Rangel, J.M., Díaz-Aguilera, J.H. (2023), Circular economy in the Latin American cement and concrete industry: a sustainable solution of design, durability, materials, and processes. Revista ALCONPAT. 13:328-348. https://doi.org/10.21041/ra.v13i3.697

Milenio (2018), NL, entre los estados que generan más basura: Inegi. Accessed on September 26, 2023, at: Accessed on September 26, 2023, at: https://www.milenio.com/estados/nl-entre-los-estados-que-generan-mas-basura-inegi

Miranda, P.E. (2019), “Análisis de costos entre vivienda de interés social vertical y vivienda de interés social horizontal en San Juan del Río”, Bachelor thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Queretaro.

Mohan, M.K., Rahul, A.V., van Dam, B., Zeidan, T., De Schutter, G., Van Tittelboom, K. (2022) Performance criteria, environmental impact and cost assessment for 3D printable concrete mixtures. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 181:106255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106255

Moelich, G.M., Kruger, J., Combrinck, R. (2020), Plastic shrinkage cracking in 3D printed concrete. Compos. Part B: Eng., 200:108313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108313.

Motalebi, A., Khondoker, M.A.H., Kabir, G. (2023). A Systematic Review of Life Cycle Assessments of 3D Concrete Printing. Sust. Operat. Computs. 5:41-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susoc.2023.08.003

Natives3D (2018). Sika, el especialista en impresión 3D de concreto. Accesado el 1 de septiembre de 2023 en: Accesado el 1 de septiembre de 2023 en: https://www.3dnatives.com/es/sika-impresion-3d-de-concreto-220520182/

Nematollahi, B., Xia, M., Sanjayan, J. (2017), “Current Progress of 3D Concrete Printing Technologies.” en: 34th ISARC, Taipei (Taiwan), pp. 260-267. https://doi.org/10.22260/ISARC2017/0035.

Nodehi, M., Aguayo, F., Nodehi, S.E., Gholampour, A., Ozbakkaloglu, T., & Gencel, O. (2022). Durability properties of 3D printed concrete (3DPC). Autom. Constr. 142:104479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104479

NoParast, M., Hematian, M., Ashrafian, A., Amiri, M. J. T., Jafari, H. A. (2021), Development of a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm for implementing circular economy strategies in the concrete industry. Sust. Prod. & Cons. 27:933-946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.02.009

OSHA (2022), Commonly Used Statistics | Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Accesado el 31 de agosto de 2023 en: Accesado el 31 de agosto de 2023 en: https://www.osha.gov/data/commonstats

Özalp, F., Yilmaz, H.D. (2020), Fresh and Hardened Properties of 3D High-Strength Printing Concrete and Its Recent Applications. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Civ. Eng., 44(S1):319-330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-020-00370-4

Perales-Santillan, M.E., Díaz-Aguilera, J.H., Mendoza-Rangel, J.M. (2024), Evaluation of the rheological behavior for alkaline-activated cements of metakaolin and limestone for its potential application in 3D printing. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Civ. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-024-01363-3

Paz-Pérez, C.A. (2016), “El impacto de la sustentabilidad en la vivienda en serie de nuevo león”, Masters Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León.

Pérez-Cortes, P., Escalante-García, J.I. (2020), Design and optimization of alkaline binders of limestone-metakaoline A comparison of strength, microstructure and sustainability with portland cement and geopolymers. J. Crean. Prod. 273:123118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123118

Rahul, A.V., Santhanam, M., Meena, H., y Ghani, Z. (2019), Mechanical characterization of 3D printable concrete. Constr. Build. Mater., 227:116710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.116710

Robayo-Salazar, R., Mejía de Gutiérrez, R., Villaquirán-Caicedo, M.A., Arjona, S.D. (2023), 3D printing with cementitious materials: Challenges and opportunities for the construction sector. Autom. Constr. 146:104693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104693

Rosas-Díaz, F., García-Hernández, D.G., Mendoza-Rangel, J.M., Terán-Torres, B., Galindo-Rodríguez, S.A., Juárez-Alvarado, C.A. (2022), Development of a Portland Cement-Based Material with Agave salmiana Leaves Bioaggregate. Maters. 17:6000. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15176000

Ruiz-Jaramillo, C. (2021), “Development of a cement-based extrusion system for application in 3D printing”, Tesis de Maestría, Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey.

Şahin, H. G., Mardani-Aghabaglou, A. (2022), Assessment of materials, design parameters and some properties of 3D printing concrete mixtures; a state-of-the-art review. Constr. Build. Maters. 316:125865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125865

Sanjayan, J.G., Nazari, A., Nematollahi, B. (2019), “3D concrete printing technology: construction and building applications”, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, Cambridge, England.

Schuldt, S.J., Jagoda, J.A., Hoisington, A.J., Delorit, J.D. (2021), A systematic review and analysis of the viability of 3D-printed construction in remote environments. Autom. Constr. 125:103642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103642

Secretaría de Desarrollo Sustentable (2020), Norma ambiental estatal NAE-SDS-002-2019. Accessed on September 30, 2023 at: Accessed on September 30, 2023 at: http://aire.nl.gob.mx/docs/normatividad/NAE-SDS-002-2019.pdf

Senado de la República (2021), El 50 por ciento de las emisiones contaminantes pertenecen al sector de la construcción. Accessed on September 26, 2023 at: Accessed on September 26, 2023 at: http://comunicacion.senado.gob.mx/index.php/informacion/boletines/50135-el-50-por-ciento-de-las-emisiones-contaminantes-pertenecen-al-sector-de-la-construccion.html

Sikora, P., Techman, M., Federowicz, K., El-Khayatt, A.M., Saudi, H.A., Elrahman, M.A., Hoffmann, M., Stephan, D., Chung, S.Y. (2022) Insight into the microstructural and durability characteristics of 3D printed concrete: Cast versus printed specimens. C. Stud. Constr. Maters. 17:e01320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01320

Song, H., Li, X. (2021). An Overview on the Rheology, Mechanical Properties, Durability, 3D Printing, and Microstructural Performance of Nanomaterials in Cementitious Composites. Materials. 14:2950. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112950

Tecnológico de Monterrey. (2021). Los matices de la vivienda en México. Accessed on September 25, 2023 at: Accessed on September 25, 2023 at: https://futurociudades.tec.mx/es/los-matices-de-la-vivienda-en-mexico

UANL-FIC (2023), 1er Simposio del Cuerpo Académico Consolidado de Tecnología del Concreto “La Industria de la Construcción y la Economía Circular: Estrategias y Avances en Sostenibilidad”. Accessed 21 May 2024 in: Accessed 21 May 2024 in: https://fic.uanl.mx/1er-simposio-cactc2023/.

UN-Habitat (2019), Elements of adequate housing. Accessed 25 September 2023 in: Accessed 25 September 2023 in: https://onuhabitat.org.mx/index.php/elementos-de-una-vivienda-adecuada

United Nations (2015), Sustainable development goals. Accessed 1 September 2023 in: Accessed 1 September 2023 in: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/es/objetivos-de-desarrollo-sostenible/

UNEP (2020), Building sector emissions hit record high in 2019: UN report. Accessed 28 September 2023 in: Accessed 28 September 2023 in: https://www.unep.org/es/noticias-y-reportajes/comunicado-de-prensa/emisiones-del-sector-de-los-edificios-alcanzaron-nivel#:~:text=Eficiencia%20de%20recursos-,Emisiones%20del%20sector%20de%20los%20edificios%20alcanzaron%20nivel,2019%3A%20informe%20de%20la%20ONU&text=La%20operaci%C3%B3n%20y%20construcci%C3%B3n%20de,2%20relacionadas%20con%20la%20energ%C3%ADa.

Van Breugel, K. (2017). “Ageing Infrastructure and Circular Economy: Challenges and Risks”, in: Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress on Civil, Structural, and Environmental Engineering, CSEE’17, Barcelona (España), pp. 1-8.

Van Der Putten, J., De Volder, M., Van den Heede, P., De Schutter, G., Van Tittelboom, K. (2020), 3D Printing of Concrete: The Influence on Chloride Penetration, RILEM Inter. Conf. Concr. Digital Fabric. 28(2):500-507. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49916-7_51

Velvizhi, G., Shanthakumar, S., Das, B., Pugazhendhi, A., Priya, T.S., Ashok, B., Nanthagopal, K., Vignesh, R., Karthick, C. (2020), Biodegradable and non-biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste for multifaceted applications through a closed loop integrated refinery platform: Paving a path towards circular economy. Sci. Total Environ. 731:138049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138049

Villagrán‐Zaccardi, Y., Pareja, R., Rojas, L., Irassar, E., Torres‐Acosta, A., Tobón, J., John, V.M. (2022), Overview of cement and concrete production in Latin America and the Caribbean with a focus on the goals of reaching carbon neutrality. RILEM techn. Let. 7:30-46. https://doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2022.155

Vijayalaxmi, J., Parth, S. (2023), Comparative analysis of concrete 3D printing and conventional construction technique for housing. Innov. Proc. Mater. Additive Manufac. 177-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-86011-6.00011-8

WINSUN (2014), Company news. Accesado el 1 de septiembre de 2023 en: Accesado el 1 de septiembre de 2023 en: http://www.winsun3d.com/En/News/index/p1/2

Wolfs, R.J.M., Bos, F.P., Salet, T.A.M. (2019), Hardened properties of 3D printed concrete: The influence of process parameters on interlayer adhesion. Cem. Concr. Res., 119:132-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.02.017

Xiao, J., Han, N., Zhang, L., Zou, S. (2021), Mechanical and microstructural evolution of 3D printed concrete with polyethylene fiber and recycled sand at elevated temperatures. Constr. Build. Mater. 293:123524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123524

Yang, M., Chen, L., Wang, J., Msigwa, G., Osman, A.I., Fawzy, S., Rooney, D.W., Pow-Seng, Y. (2022), Circular economy strategies for combating climate change and other environmental issues. Env. Chem. Let. 21:55-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01499-6

Ye, J., Cui, C., Yu, J., Yu, K., Xiao, J. (2021), Fresh and anisotropic-mechanical properties of 3D printable ultra-high ductile concrete with crumb rubber. Compos. Part B: Eng., 211:108639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.108639

Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Yang, L., Liu, G., Chen, Y., Yu, S., Du, H. (2021), Hardened properties and durability of large-scale 3D printed cement-based materials. Mater. Struct. 54:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-021-01632-x