Basic Researchhttps://doi.org/10.21041/ra.v11i2.512

Evaluation of chloride migration in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with glass powder

Avaliação da migração de cloretos em compósitos cimentícios de ultra alto desempenho com pó de vidro

Evaluación de la migración de cloruro en compuestos cementosos de ultra alto rendimiento con polvo de vidrio

L. V. Dias1, S. M. Soares2, J. A. Salvador2 , F. G. S. Ferreira1 *

1 Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brasil.

2 Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo, Caraguatatuba, Brasil.

*Contact author: fgiannotti@ufscar.br

Reception: September 12, 2020.
Acceptance: March 11, 2021.
Publication: May 01, 2021.


Cite as: Dias, L. V., Soares, S. M., Salvador Filho, J. A., Ferreira, F. G. S. (2021), "Evaluation of chloride migration in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with glass powder", Revista ALCONPAT, 11 (2), pp. 61 – 75, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21041/ra.v11i2.512

Abstract
The influence of glass powder incorporation to ordinary concrete regarding mechanical and durability properties has been studied. This work aims to evaluate the durability of ultra-high performance cementitious composites (UHPCC) with partial substitution of Portland cement by glass powder, through chloride migration test according to the NT Build 492 methodology. With this aim, specimens with 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 50% content of glass powder by weight of Portland cement were cast, cured in lime saturated water until the age of 28 days. The results indicate that minor contents of glass powder do not harm the concrete properties and higher contents maintain good mechanical and durability characteristics.
Keywords: cementitious composite, glass powder, chloride migration

Resumo
O pó de vidro incorporado ao concreto convencional vem sendo estudado em relação à sua influência na resistência mecânica e durabilidade. Este trabalho visa avaliar a durabilidade de compósitos cimentícios de ultra alto desempenho (CCUAD) com substituição parcial do cimento por vidro finamente moído, por meio do ensaio de migração de cloretos utilizando o método da NT Build 492. Para tanto foram moldados corpos de prova com teores de pó de vidro de 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% e 50% em relação ao volume de cimento e a avaliação foi feita na idade de 28 dias. Os resultados indicam que, em teores baixos, o pó de vidro não prejudica as propriedades dos compósitos e em teores mais altos os compósitos mantêm boas características mecânicas e de durabilidade.
Palavras-chave: compósito cimentício, pó de vidro, migração de cloretos.

Resumen
Se ha estudiado la incorporación de polvo de vidrio en el hormigón convencional por su influencia en la resistencia mecánica y la durabilidad. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo validar la durabilidad de los compuestos cementosos de ultra alto desempeño (CCUAD) con reemplazo parcial de cemento por vidrio finamente molido, a través del ensayo de migración de cloruros, utilizando el método NT Build 492. Para ello, fueron moldeadas probetas conteniendo valores de 0%, 10%, 20%, 30 % y 50% de polvo de vidrio en relación al volumen de cemento, y la evaluación se realizó a los 28 días de edad. Los resultados indican que, con valores bajos, el polvo de vidrio no perjudica las propiedades de los compuestos y, a niveles superiores, los compuestos mantienen características mecánicas y durabilidad adecuadas.
Palabras clave: compuesto cementoso, polvo de vidrio, migración de cloruro.


1. Introduction

The term ultra-high-performance concrete was first used by de Larrard and Sedran (1994). It is usually related to a high compressive strength composite (reaching 4 times the strength of ordinary concrete), according to Bahedh and Jafar (2018). Morover, its development applies particle packaging models that leads to a high durability material (Alkaysi et al., 2015).

Silica fume is usually employed in the production of ultra-high performance cementitius composite, in addition to a high Portland cement consumption (about 800 - 1000 kg/m³) (Bahedh and Jafar, 2018; Ganesh and Murthy, 2018), and smaller aggregates when compared to ordinary concrete. However, due to the high environmental impact generated in Portland cement production, since about 0.8 tons of CO2 are released to produce one ton of Portland cement (Mehta and Ashish, 2020), ultra-high performance cementitious matrices meet current trends in carbon footprint reduction, with the use of high levels of supplementary cementitious materials in partial replacement of Portland cement. Supplementary cementitious materials have been widely used to as partial replacement of Portland cement in concrete either as filler or pozzolanic material.

Adaway and Wang (2015) used residual glass as a partial substitute for the fine aggregate in structural concrete and found that concrete containing up to 30% of fine glass aggregate exhibits greater compressive strength than ordinary concrete.

Du and Tan (2017) studied the incorporation of high volume of glass powder as a partial substitute of Portland cement in cementitious composites and obtained better mechanical behaviors and higher performance in terms of durability.

Studies conducted by Afshinnia and Rangaraju (2015) showed satisfactory results in mitigating the alkali-silica reaction when glass powder was used as a pozzolanic material in partial replacement to cement.

High and ultra-high-performance concretes should solve the durability problem on chloride attack in ordinary structural concrete due to their dense microstructure (Sohail et al., 2021).

The European Union generated about 25.8 Mt of glass waste in 2007 (Abdollahnejad et al., 2017). Brazil consumed 5.5 kg/inhabitants. of which 80% were not recycled in 2008, according to data from the Institute for Applied Economic Research (IPEA, 2012). Thus, glass residue is an abundant material whose use can help to reduce the environmental impact, both as supplementary cementitious material in concrete production, as well as in Portland cement manufacture as a pozzolanic material. Glass powder can be used as partial replacement of Portland cement aiming to reduce carbon emissions from the Civil Construction industry considering its high silica (SiO2) content, its amorphous structure and pozzolanic characteristics, (Mehta and Ashish, 2020).

Thus, the main objective of this work is to evaluate the durability of ultra-high-performance cementitious composites (UHPCC) with partial substitutions of Portland cement by glass powder, at the contents of 10%, 20%, 30% and 50%, focusing on chloride penetration, through chloride migration assay.


2. Materials and metodos

2.1 Materials

Portland cement type CPV-ARI, silica fume and glass powder were used as binders. Glass powder with particles size smaller than 75 μm was used. Glasses classified as soda-lime were processed from post-consumption amber bottles to minimize uncontrolled variations due to pigments. After collecting, the glass bottles were washed in water with detergent to remove labels, caps, glue, and impurities. It was air dried and crushed in a concrete mixer loaded with chrome-steel spheres. After grinding, the crushed glass was grounded in a ball mill, with balls of the same material. The glass resulting from grinding in ball mill was dried in an oven at 110°C ± 5°C for 24 hours. After dried, the glass was sifted in a mechanical sieve shaker in batches of 200g for 15 minutes. Figure 1 presents the glass powder processing.

Source: Adapted from Freitas (2019).
Figure 1. Recycled glass powder processing.

Ground materials were packed in paper and plastic bags, avoiding contact with moisture. In addition, a natural fine quartz aggregate with a maximum dimension of 1.2 mm was used. Superplasticizer admixtures based on polycarboxylate were also used to ensure low water/binder ratio and shrinkage reducing admixture to avoid matrix cracking. The physical characteristics of Portland cement, silica fume, glass powder and sand are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The number of tests were fulfilled according to each specific Brazilian standard.

Table1. Portland. Cement physical characteristics.
Parameter Method Results Reference values NBR 16697 (ABNT, 2018)
Specific gravity NBR 16605 (ABNT, 2017) 3.16 g/cm3 -
Initial setting time NBR 16607 (ABNT, 2018) 135 min ≥ 60 min
Final setting time NBR 16607 (ABNT, 2018) 210 min ≤ 600 min
Water for normal consistency NBR 16606 (ABNT, 2018) 30.0% -
% retained in the 75 μm sieve NBR 16372 (ABNT, 2015) 0.1% ≤ 6.0%
Blaine surface area NBR 16372 (ABNT, 2015) 665.0 m2/kg -
Compressive strength 1 day NBR 7215 (ABNT, 2019) 27.5 MPa ≥ 14.0 MPa
3 days 42.0 MPa ≥ 20.0 MPa
7 days 48.7 MPa ≥ 34.0 MPa
28 days 52.2 MPa -


Table2. Silica. fume and glass powder physical characteristics.
Parameter Silica fume Glass powder
Test result Reference values NBR 13956-1 Test result Reference values
Specific gravity 2.25 kg/dm3 - 2.55 kg/dm3 -
Moisture Max. 3.0% ≤ 3.0% - -
% retained in the 45 μm sieve Max. 10.0% ≤ 10.0% - -
Blaine surface area 247.0 m2/kg - 393.0 m2/kg -
Pozzolanic activity index Min. 105.0% ≥ 105.0% 6.4 MPa±0.10 * 6.0 MPa**
*tested according NBR 5751 (ABNT, 2015) method.


Table3. Fine. aggregate physical characteristics.
Parameter Method Result
Water absorption NBR NM 30 (ABNT, 2000) 0.64%
Specific mass NBR NM 52 (ABNT, 2009) 2.56 g/cm3
Weight Unit NBR NM 45 (ABNT, 2006) 1475.78 kg/m3
Unit weight (compacted) NBR NM 45 (ABNT, 2006) 1617.83 kg/m3
Organic impurities NBR NM 49  (ABNT, 2006) Clearer solution than standard
Fine material passing through 75 μm sieve, by washing NBR NM 46 (ABNT, 2003) 1.66%

In Table 4 the chemical characteristics of Portland cement, silica fume, glass powder and fine aggregate are presented.

Table4. Materials. chemical composition.
Component Materials (values in mass %)
Portland cement Silica fume Glass powder Fine aggregate
Loss on ignition (LOI) 4.05 (≤ 6.50) * 3.60 (≤ 6.00) ** 0.58 0.58
Calcium oxide (CaO) 61.40 <0.20 9.10 0.071
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 4.31 <0.20 3.70 3.40
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 23.00 94.10 74.00 94.00
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 2.97 (≤ 4.5) * - - -
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 2.49 <0.50 0.42 0.67
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.96 1.28 0.56 1.20
Phosphoric oxide (P2O5) 0.52 - - -
Strontium oxide (SrO) 0.27 <0.20 0.039 -
Chlorine Ion (Cl−) 0.12 - - -
Thorium dioxide (ThO2) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Uraninite (U3O8) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) - <0.20 - 0.35
Chromium Oxide (Cr2O3) - - - 0.049
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) - - 0.74 -
Rubidium oxide (Rb2O) - - 0.016 -
Sodium oxide (Na2O) - - 11.00 0.37
* Reference values from NBR 16697 (ABNT, 2018).

In Figure 2 the granulometric distribution of Portland cement, silica fume, glass powder and fine aggregate (quartz sand) from three samples each test are presented. In these results it is possible to observe D50 parameter of 0.8 μm for silica fume, 7 μm for Portland cement, 15 μm for glass powder and 270 μm for quartz sand.

Figure 2. Particle-size distribution.

2.2 Methodology

For ultra-high performance cementitious composites production, a water/binder ratio of 0.18 was adopted for all mixtures, the silica fume content was 0,8% of the Portland cement weight of the reference mixture. Glass powder was added in contents of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 50% in volumetric replacement of Portland cement, and the mixtures were named REF, VD10, VD20, VD30 and VD50, respectively. In addition, an amount of 2.25% of superplasticizer admixture was used to obtain a consistency index of 380±10mm (fluid consistency), and shrinkage reductor admixture in content of 1%, as recommended by the manufacturer. The binder-admixture compatibility was evaluated by the mini slump test, according to the Kantro test (1980).

The consistency of cementitious composites (Figure 3) was verified according to NBR 13276 (ABNT, 2016) and the mass density and incorporated air content of the composites in the fresh state were determined according to NBR 13278 (ABNT, 2005).

Figure 3. Slump flow test for consistency determination.

In Table 5 it is shown the unitary proportions, Portland cement consumption and consistency for each mixture. The nomenclature SP refers to the superplasticizer admixture and RR, to the shrinkage reducing admixture.

Table 5. Mixture ratios and consistency index for each composite.
Mixture Portland cement Silica fume Glass powder Fine aggregate Water SP RR Consistency (mm)
REF 1 0.08 0.00 1.07 0.194 0.020 0.010 380.0
VD10 1 0.09 0.09 1.19 0.216 0.027 0.012 377.0
VD20 1 0.10 0.20 1.34 0.243 0.030 0.014 375.5
VD30 1 0.11 0.35 1.53 0.278 0.035 0.015 381.5
VD50 1 0.16 0.81 2.15 0.389 0.049 0.022 384.5

The materials consumption of each cementitious composites mixture evaluated are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Cementitious composites material consumption in kg/m³.
Mixture Portland cement Silica fume Glass powder Fine aggregate Water* SP RR
REF 1000.00 80.00 0.00 1074.00 181.28 24.3 10.80
VD10 900.00 80.00 81.00 1074.00 181.28 24.3 10.80
VD20 800.00 80.00 161.00 1074.00 181.28 24.3 10.80
VD30 700.00 80.00 242.00 1074.00 181.28 24.3 10.80
VD50 500.00 80.00 403.00 1074.00 181.28 24.3 10.80
*Water consumption adjusted considering the solids content present in superplasticizer.

For the hardened state properties assay, 5x10 cm cylindrical specimens were manually dense molded and cured in lime saturated water. The axial compressive strength test for UHPCC was performed according to NBR 5739 (ABNT, 2018) at the age of 28 days on four specimens per mixture. The test to obtain the static modulus of elasticity of UHPCC was performed according to NBR 8522 (ABNT, 2017) at the age of 28 days on three specimens per mixture.

For durability assay, water absorption by capillarity of CCUAD at the age of 28 days was performed, following the recommendations of NBR 9779 (ABNT, 2012) in three 5x10 cm cylinder specimens per mixture, and chloride migration coefficient in the non-stationary state (according to NT Build 492) on two 10x20 cm cylinder specimens for each mixture.

The chloride diffusion test device is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Chloride diffusion test apparatus.

The specimens were cut into four equal parts of 10 x 5 cm, using the two inner samples for the test. After being cut, the samples underwent the preconditioning process in a vacuum container with both faces exposed to an internal pressure between 1 and 5 KPa. Subsequently, the container was filled with a Ca(OH)2 solution until the samples were fully immersed. The vacuum was kept in the container to ensure the saturation of the cementitious composite pores with the solution. Two solutions were then prepared, the reaction solution of water with sodium chloride (NaCl) at 10%, and the anode solution of water with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 0.3 M. After being removed from the vacuum, the samples were placed in tubes, and the interfaces sealed with silicone to ensure that only the faces were in contact with the solutions. A container was filled with NaCl solution and the NaOH solution was placed in the tubes above the samples. The tubes with the samples were then placed in the container containing the NaCl solution. The positive pole of the energy source was connected to the anode and the negative to the frame, and the current was passed through the system to accelerate the Cl- ions migration through the samples. The test time and voltage are defined based on the initial current passing through the system, according to the recommendations of NT Build 492. The samples were then removed from the apparatus, splitted by diametral compression, and a 0.1M silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution was sprayed to highlight the chloride penetration depth in the samples. This depth was then measured with a caliper and the chloride migration coefficient was determined in the non-stationary state by Equation 1, where Dnssm represents the migration coefficient in the non-stationary state (10-12 m²/s), U the applied voltage (V), T the average of the initial and final temperature of the anode (°C), L the sample height (mm), xd the penetrations depth average (mm), and t the test duration (hours).

(1)

The results were analyzed in terms of analysis of variance (ANOVA), and in cases where F > Fcritical, the Tukey test was applied.


3. Results and discussion

The results of mass density, incorporated air content, compressive strength, static elasticity modulation and water absorption by capillarity of ultra high performance cementitious composites at the age of 28 days are shown in Table 7. In the Table 7 the letter A indicates that the value is statistically equal to the reference, while the letter B indicates statistical difference compared to the reference mixture.

Table 7. Mechanical and physical characteristics of the UHPCC studied.
Mixture Unit weight (kg/m3) Air content (%) Compressive strength (MPa) Modulus of elasticity (GPa) Water absorption (g/cm2)
REF 2307.0 4.0 115.58±12.77/- 43.09±1.81/- 0.079±0.008/-
VD10 2338.0 2.0 119.40±2.76/A 45.51±3.35/A 0.077±0.007/A
VD20 2326.0 2.0 113.57±6.84/A 41.67±3.54/A 0.092±0.007/A
VD30 2322.0 1.0 110.66±6.13/A 42.94±2.73/A 0.091±0.003/A
VD50 2273.0 1.0 83.37±6.83/B 41.51±0.80/A 0.088±0.02/A

An increase of around 1% in mass density was observed for the VD10, VD20 and VD30 samples when compared to the REF samples, while the composite density with 50% replacement of Portland cement by glass powder decreased by 1.47%. The incorporated air content results presented a reduction with the increase of glass powder content. Regarding compressive strength, static modulus of elasticity and water absorption, there is a variation between the values, however no sample presents a statistically significant difference when compared to the reference sample, except for VD50 compressive strength which decreased by 23.5% in comparison to REF.

Li et al. (2019) and Lee et al. (2018) added glass powder to the Portland cement paste in contents from 0% to 25% with a/c ratio 0.41, and observed the compressive strength decrease with increasing of glass powder amount. The decrease in the compressive strength of the Portland cement paste with glass powder can be explained by the dilution effect. The dilution effect of glass powder reduces the Portland cement content and increases the effective water/cement ratio, to reduce the formation of hydration products and, finally, reduces the compressive strength of the Portland cement paste (Du et al., 2020). This is also observed in other studies. According to Du and Tan (2017), the pozzolanic reaction of glass powder is relatively slower and therefore the resistance in the early ages of concrete is reduced when compared to Portland cement hydration. However, with a longer curing age, the benefits of the glass powder's pozzolanic reaction begin to appear.

Sohail et al. (2018) have charted several studies relating compressive strength results and the respective water/binder ratio. The results of the 28-day compressive strength tests of reference cementitious composites and Portland cement replacement by glass powder found in the present study were included into the same chart (Figure 5).

Fonte: Adapted from Sohail et al. (2018).
Figure 5. Effect of water-to-binder ratio on compressive strength of HPC and UHPC

By reducing the water/binder ratio the compressive strength increases; however, for CCUAD mixtures in the same water/binder ratio, different compressive strengths were achieved due to other factors, such as the amount and type of Portland cement or silica fume.

The results of the chloride penetration depth and the chloride diffusion coefficients in the non-stationary state are presented in Table 8.

Table 8. Chloride penetration depth and chloride diffusion coefficient on 28-day age samples.
Mixture Chloride penetration depth (mm) Chloride diffusion coefficient (10-12  m2/s)
Value Variation Value Variation
REF 1.17 1.26 0.196 0.019
VD10 1.14 0.93 0.191 0.026
VD20 1.55 0.88 0.141 0.018
VD30 1.46 0.91 0.261 0.059
VD50 1.63 0.67 0.340 0.021

The results of chloride diffusion coefficient at 10 -12m²/s, as well as the average depth of chloride penetration are shown in Figure 6. It is emphasized that the sample results pointed with the letter A are statistically equal to the reference samples, while those pointed with the letter B are statistically different when compared to the reference results.

Figure 6. Chloride diffusion coefficient and penetration depth.

It is observed that there was an increase in the migration coefficient of cementitious composites with the increase of glass powder content (except for the vd20 mixture). This fact can be explained due the glass powder particles (D50=15μm) are larger than Portland cement particles (D50=7μm), leading to a different particle packaging (filer effect of glass powder), in addition to the pozzolanic reactions of glass powder being slower than the Portland cement hydration reactions, that can develop up to older ages as observed by Du and Tan (2015). Thus, samples with higher glass content trend to present a lower C-S-H content at intermediate ages when compared to those with lower content or without glass powder. Tam et al. (2012) found that a higher C-S-H content leads to a lower volume of pores and their disconnection, so samples with lower C-S-H content tend to have a higher chloride penetration depth.

Also, the fact that water absorption content tends to increase as the percentage of glass powder increases, as shown in Table 7, is another indication of porosity growth with the increase in glass powder content.

The depth of chloride penetration at 28 days results follows the chloride diffusion coefficient for all mixtures, except for the mixture with 20% of glass powder replacement.

For the chloride diffusion coefficient, the statistical analysis shows that the replacement of Portland cement by 50% of glass powder induced a significant effect when compared to all mixtures evaluated.

However, it is worth mentioning that all obtained results for chloride penetration depth and chloride migration were lower than those observed in other studies with ultra-high performance materials. Chen et al. (2018) and Mosavinejad et al. (2020) evaluated the diffusion coefficient of chlorides in UHPCC obtaining chloride penetration depths around 5 mm and diffusion coefficients of 2*10-12m²/s. In addition, when comparing the values obtained in this work with those in Table 9, it is verified that all mixtures are classified with extreme high resistance to chloride penetration.

Tabela 9. Resistance to chloride penetration of various types of concrete based on the 28-day chloride diffusivity.
Chloride diffusion coefficient (10-12 m2/s) Chloride penetration depth (mm)
>15 Low
10.0-15.0 Moderate
5.0-10.0 High
2.5-5.0 Very High
≤ 2.5 Extremely High
Source: Adapted from Teng et al. (2018).

Castellote, Andrade and Alonso (2001) and Santos (2006) analyzed the chloride diffusion tests in ordinary concretes with and without silica fume incorporation, varying the water/cement ratio, and justified the reduction of diffusion coefficients due to a reduction in the water/binder ratio followed by a reduction in total porosity due to the decrease in this relationship. In the present work, the water/binder ratio was constant, which provided a significant increase in the water/cement ratio of the VD50, which may have caused its porosity increase.

According to Li et al. (2020), the chloride ions diffusion coefficients of UHPCC varied from 0.02 x 10-12 m2/s to 0.41 x 10-12 m2/s depending on the water/cement ratio, curing procedure, fiber volume and age of the tests. Due to the large number of parameters involved in performed tests available in the literature, it is difficult to compare quantitatively the chloride ions diffusion in CCUAD.


4. Conclusions

In accordance with the results obtained, it is concluded that:

5. Acknowledgment

To the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) for financial assistance to carry out this research, and to the Institute of Technological Research of the State of São Paulo (IPT) for its support on the binders´characterization tests.


References

Abdollahnejad, Z., Kheradmand, M., Pacheco-Torgal, F. (2017), Short-Term Compressive Strength of Fly Ash and Waste Glass Alkali-Activated Cement-Based Binder Mortars with Two Biopolymers. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 29(7). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001920

Adaway, M., Wang, Y. (2015), Recycled glass as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in structural concrete - Effects on compressive strength. Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering. 14(1):116-122.

Afshinnia, K., Rangaraju, P. R. (2015), Influence of fineness of ground recycled glass on mitigation of alkali-silica reaction in mortars. Construction and Building Materials. 81: 257-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.041

Alkaysi, M., El-Tawil, S., Liu, Z., Hansen, W. (2016), Effects of silica powder and cement type on durability of ultra high performance concrete (UHPC). Cement and Concrete Composites. 66: 47- 56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.11.005

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2000). NM 30: Agregado miúdo - Determinação da absorção de água. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2006). NM 45: Agregados - Determinação da massa unitária e do volume de vazios. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2003). NM 46: Agregados - Determinação do material fino que passa através da peneira 75 μm, por lavagem. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2001). NM 49: Agregado miúdo - Determinação de impurezas orgânicas. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2009). NM 52: Agregado miúdo - Determinação da massa específica e da massa específica aparente. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2003). NBR 248: Agregados - Determinação da composição granulométrica. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2018). NBR 5739: Concreto - Ensaio de compressão de corpos de prova cilíndricos. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2015). NBR 5751 Materiais pozolânicos - Determinação da atividade pozolânica com cal aos sete dias. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2019). NBR 7215: Cimento Portland - Determinação da resistência à compressão de corpos de prova cilíndricos. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2013). NBR 7681-2: Calda de cimento para injeção. Parte 2: Determinação do índice de fluidez e da vida útil - Método de ensaio. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2017). NBR 8522: Concreto - Determinação dos módulos estáticos de elasticidade e de deformação a compressão. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2012). NBR 9779: Argamassa e concretos endurecidos - Determinação da absorção de água por capilaridade. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2013). NBR 11579: Cimento Portland - Determinação do índice de finura por meio da peneira 75 μm (nº200). Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2015). NBR 12653: Materiais pozolânicos - Requisitos. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2016). NBR 13276: Argamassa para assentamento e revestimento de paredes e tetos - Determinação do índice de consistência. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2005). NBR 13278: Argamassa para assentamento e revestimento de paredes e tetos - Determinação da densidade de massa e do teor de ar incorporado. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2012). NBR 13956-1: Sílica ativa para uso com cimento Portland em concreto, argamassa e pasta. Parte 1: Requisitos. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2010). NBR 15895: Materiais pozolânicos - Determinação do teor de hidróxido de cálcio fixado - Método Chapelle modificado. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2015). NBR 16372: Cimento Portland e outros materiais em pó - Determinação da finura pelo método de permeabilidade ao ar (método de Blaine). Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2017). NBR 16605: Cimento Portland e outros materiais em pó - Determinação da massa específica. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2018). NBR 16606: Cimento Portland - Determinação da pasta de consistência normal. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2018). NBR 16607: Cimento Portland - Determinação dos tempos de pega. Rio de Janeiro.

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. (2018). NBR 16697: Cimento Portland - Requisitos. Rio de Janeiro.

Bahedh, M. A., Jaafar, M. S. (2018), Ultra High-Performance Concrete Utilizing Fly Ash as Cement Replacement under Autoclaving Technique. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2018.e00202

Castellote, M., Andrade, C., Alonso, C. (2001), Measurement of the steady and non-steady-state chloride diffusion coefficients in a migration test by means of monitoring the conductivity in the anolyte chamber. Comparison with natural diffusion tests. Cement and Concrete Research. 31(10): 1411-1420 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00562-2

Chen, Y., Yu, R., Wang, X., Chen, J., Shui, Z. (2018), Evaluation and optimization of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) subjected to harsh ocean environment: Towards an application of Layered Double Hydroxides (LDHs). Construction and Building Materials. 177: 51-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.210

de Larrard, F., Sedran, T. (1994), Optimization of ultra-high perfomance concrete by the use of a packing model. Cement and Concrete Research. 24(6):997-1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90022-1

Du, H., Tan, K. H. (2014). Effect of particle size on alkali-silica reaction in recycled glass mortars. Construction and Building Materials. 66: 275-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.092

Du, H., Tan, K. H. (2017), Properties of high volume glass powder concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites.75: 22-29.

Du, Y., Yang, W., Ge, Y., Wang, S., Liu, O. (2020), Thermal conductivity of cement paste containing waste glass powder, metakaolin and limestone filler as supplementary cementitious material. Journal of Cleaner Production. 287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125018

Freitas, T. O. (2019), “Efeito do pó de vidro na mitigação da reação álcali-sílica de compósitos cimentícios de alto desempenho”, Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, p.148.

Instituto de pesquisa econômica aplicada (IPEA) (2012), Diagnóstico dos Resíduos Sólidos Urbanos. Disponível em: https://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/relatoriopesquisa/121009_relatorio_residuos_solidos_urbanos.pdf. Acesso em: 27 de março de 2020.

Kantro, D. (1980), Influence of Water-Reducing Admixtures on Properties of Cement Paste-A Miniature Slump Test. Cement, Concrete and Aggregates. 2(0):95-102. https://doi.org/10.1520/CCA10190J

Lee, H., Hanif, A., Usman, M., Sim., J., Oh, H. (2018), Performance evaluation of concrete incorporating glass powder and glass sludge wastes as supplementary cementing material. Journal of Cleaner Production. 170: 683-693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.133

Li, J., Wu, Z., Shi, C., Yuan, Q., Zhang, Z. (2020), Durability of ultra-high performance concrete: a review. Construction and Building Materials. 255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119296

Li, P. P., Yu, Q.L., Brouwers, H.J.H., Chen, W. (2019), Conceptual design and performance evaluation of two-stage ultra-low binder ultra-high performance concrete. Cement and Concrete Research.125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.

Mehta, A., Ashish, D. K. (2020), Silica fume and waste glass in cement concrete production: A review. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100888

Mosavinejad, S. H. G., Langaroudi, M. A. M., Barandoust, J., Ghanizadeh, A. (2020), Electrical and microstructural analysis of UHPC containing short PVA fibers. Construction and Building Materials. 235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117448

Nordtest Method (1999). NT BUILD 492: Concrete, mortar and cement-based repair materials: chloride migration coefficient from non-steady-state migration experiments

Santos, L. (2006), “Avaliação da resistividade elétrica do concreto como parâmetro para a previsão da iniciação da corrosão induzida por cloretos em estruturas de concreto”. Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de Brasília, p.178

Sohail, M. G., Kahraman, R., Nuaimi, N.A., Gencturk, B., Alnahhal, W. (2021), Durability characteristics of high and ultra-high performance concretes. Journal of Building Engineering. 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101669

Sohail, M. G., Wang, B., Jain, A., Kahraman, R. (2018), Advancements in concrete mix designs: high-performance and ultrahigh-performance concretes from 1970 to 2016. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering.30(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002144

Tam, C. M., Tam, V. W. Y., Ng, K. M. (2012), Assessing drying shrinkage and water permeability of reactive powder concrete produced in Hong Kong. Construction and Building Materials. 26:79-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.05.006

Teng, S, Afroughsabet, V., Ostertag, C. P. (2018). Flexural behavior and durability properties of high-performance hybrid-fiber-reinforced concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 182:504-515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conmat.2018.06.158

Yang, R., Yu, R., Shui, Z., Gao, X., Xiao, X., Zhang, Z., Wang, Y., He, Y. (2019), Low carbon design of an Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) incorporating phosphorous slag. Journal of Cleaner Production. 240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118157